Browse Articles

Numerical backup protection scheme based on alienation indices of voltage and current measurements practically applied to synchronous generators

Abstract Differential current relays are the primary protection for detecting fault disturbances within the protection zone of three-phase synchronous generator stator windings. This paper presents a numerical backup protection scheme, based on the alienation algorithm, which serves as a redundant protection when the main differential current relay fails to isolate stator winding faults. The proposed method quantifies a set of alienation indices derived from fifteen Pearson correlation coefficients, calculated for the three-phase voltages and currents measured at the load terminals of the generator stator windings. A novel set of tripping characteristic curves, formulated from the alienation indices, enables the implementation of secondary protection functions. The method effectively detects fault disturbances and voltage/current imbalance conditions in the three-phase generator signals. The experimental validation is performed using a motor–generator set equipped with voltage and current transformers installed at the generator load terminals. The system hardware is emulated through a DAC and personal computer, while the alienation algorithm is implemented and processed using the LABVIEW software environment. Extensive experimental investigations were carried out to validate the proposed method under various fault scenarios affecting the generator. The results demonstrate the alienation algorithm’s notable simplicity, effectiveness, reliability, and efficiency. Quantitatively, the protection scheme achieved security and dependability levels exceeding 99.80%, while its reliability and accuracy surpassed 99.60%. Moreover, the proposed scheme reduces the protection malfunction rate to only 0.37%. Compared to the coherence-based alienation method for analyzing voltage and current signals, the correlation-based alienation method provides superior response speed, improved performance metrics, greater accuracy, and a more reliable assessment of asymmetry and disturbance levels. An alienation tripping-time curve is created for the backup protection scheme, enabling time-delayed tripping under fault conditions, and its operating speed can be flexibly adjusted to meet specific protection requirements.

Osteoprotective effects of partially defatted house cricket (Acheta domesticus) powder in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Clinical evidence suggests that essential hypertension is linked to oxidative stress and inflammatory infiltration, which can complicate osteoporosis. Edible house crickets ( Acheta domesticus ) are novel functional foods rich in proteins, fat, dietary fibers, and micronutrients. This research investigated the effects of a partially defatted house cricket powder (PDCP) on bone microarchitecture and strength in the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) model. Fourteen female SHRs were divided into the experimental group receiving 300 mg/kg/day PDCP and the control group receiving the vehicle for 4 weeks. Blood pressure was determined by the CODA ® non-invasive blood pressure system. Femoral bone microarchitecture and strength were determined by micro-computed tomography (µCT) and three-point bending, respectively. Immune cells were counted using an automated machine. Results showed that in the control group, systolic blood pressure (SBP) at baseline (166.6 ± 3.7 mmHg) increased to 182.4 ± 4.7 mmHg ( P  = 0.016). In contrast, the PDCP-treated group showed no significant change from baseline (168.1 ± 3.9 mmHg) to post-intervention (176.9 ± 5.6 mmHg) ( P  = 0.156). PDCP had no effects on bone microarchitecture but improved bone strength. The post-intervention yield load (a proxy for strength) of the control group was 77.55 ± 1.88 N, compared to the PDCP-treated group of 83.58 ± 1.26 N ( P  < 0.009). Similarly, post-intervention yield displacement was 307.72 ± 29.78 in the control vs. 395.93 ± 40.98 µm in the PDCP-treated group. White blood cell counts in the PDCP-treated group (7.91 ± 0.27 × 10 3 /µL) were significantly higher than those in the control (6.91 ± 0.31 × 10 3 /µL). Specifically, lymphocyte counts in the PDCP-treated group (6.66 ± 0.22 × 10 3 /µL) were significantly higher than those in the control (5.75 ± 0.28 × 10 3 /µL). In conclusion, the 4-week PDCP had osteoprotective effects, presumably mediated by dietary proteins and fibers that modulate immune-vascular homeostasis, thereby potentially mitigating immune system-related hypertension and bone mechanical impairment.

Environmental and sustainable valorization of spent adsorbent: safety and acute toxicity evaluation in rats via probit analysis

Abstract Valorization of adsorbent spent is a modern trend to maximize the utilization of absorption waste. Analytical methods, inclusive Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), were applied to evaluate the adsorbent spent (Zn-Co-Fe/LDH @ heavy metal). We examined the mechanistic toxicological effects of heavy metals within an animal model (rats) via probit analysis to evaluate the safety and acute toxicity of the spent adsorbent. The acute toxicity was evaluated and documented for 24 h, and it persisted for 14 days. A diverse multitude of toxic impacts on a different of body organs and tissues is the consequence of the bioaccumulation of these heavy metals. The rodents were weighed daily, and a variety of observations, like mortality, injury, behavior, and any indications of disease, were conducted. The safety and toxicological analyses were conducted using Probit analysis. The acute toxicity evaluation revealed varying safety profiles for the spent adsorbents. Zn-Co-Fe/LDH-As exhibited the lowest level of toxicity with an LD 50 of 370 mg/kg and a calculated safe dose of 18.5 mg/kg. In contrast, the highest toxicity was observed for Zn-Co-Fe/LDH-Pb (LD 50  = 103.7 mg/kg; safe dose = 5.2 mg/kg), followed by Zn-Co-Fe/LDH-Hg (LD 50  = 204 mg/kg; safe dose = 10.2 mg/kg). These results quantify the biological risk associated with metal-laden adsorbents and establish the safety benchmarks required for their sustainable valorization. Evaluations of biochemical parameters and hematological analysis were conducted at the conclusion of each investigation. Comparative to the controls, gross findings were obtained from the histopathological examination of the animals’ vital organs, which included the heart, lung, kidney, liver, and stomach. Our safety and toxicological data demonstrated the safety of layered double hydroxide (LDH) efficacy in adsorption, as well as a lower level of toxicity for LDH/As after adsorption. The iron content within the Zn-Co-Fe/LDH framework remained structurally integrated; however, the observed hematological alterations suggest a potential interference with iron metabolism or heme synthesis following exposure to heavy-metal laden adsorbents.

Estimating particle size and velocity from fluorescence pulses: A practical validation study of flow cytometry signals analysis

When particles cross optimal measurement regions in a flow cytometer, they generate time-resolved signals (pulses) that contain valuable information. However, this information is lost when signals are reduced to scalars such as area, width, and height. Because flow cytometers convolve particle properties with the laser profile and geometric factors of the optical interrogation region, it is in theory possible to estimate the particle diameter, velocity, and brightness (effectively its fluorophore concentration or scattering factors) from the time-resolved data alone. Here, we independently vary the velocity, size and dye concentration to validate their unique contributions to signal shape under flow conditions in which particle trajectories are well controlled. Through a series of flow rate variations on microspheres of known size and fluorophore concentrations, we study the magnitude of changes in time-resolved signals and the impact on estimation of particle properties. The method was applied to cells labeled with a DNA binding dye, which is frequently used to classify cells whether cells are in pre- (G0/G1; 1x DNA label) or post mitosis (G2; 2x DNA label) phase of the cell cycle. Using our signals analysis, we found a 1.26-fold increase in the apparent diameter from G0/G1 to G2 populations. This shift corresponds to an approximate doubling of the volume of a sphere, which is consistent with literature and microscopy data. Overall, this work validates that fluorescence pulses acquired in flow cytometry can be used to estimate and remove sources of uncertainty (e.g., due to velocity changes) and to extract information about the size, velocity, and biomarker concentrations of particles and cells.

Steric Hindrance and Secondary Interactions Govern Reconfiguration Between Two Complex Cu ^I Coordination Cages

ABSTRACT A tetramine subcomponent featuring 1,5‐naphthylene arms was designed to exhibit extensive secondary interactions when assembled around stereochemically flexible tetracoordinate Cu I ions. Using 6‐methyl‐2‐formylpyridine, a [Cu I 12 L 6 ] 12+ pseudo‐hexagonal prismatic cage formed, stabilized by 29–32 C─H···π interactions and 12 arene stacking interactions. Replacing the aldehyde component with 3‐methyl‐2‐formylpyridine introduced steric clashes that partially prevented these interactions, leading instead to the formation of a [Cu I 8 L 4 ] 8+ rectangular open prism. The system exhibited structural interconversion: adding 6‐methyl‐2‐formylpyridine to the [Cu I 8 L 4 ] 8+ cage transformed it into the [Cu I 12 L 6 ] 12+ structure through selective displacement of 8 out of 24 aldehyde residues per cage, matching the number of sterically‐hindered positions predicted from structural analysis. This work demonstrates rational control over cage architecture through fine‐tuning of steric factors and intermolecular interactions, providing design principles for generating diverse structures from identical building blocks.

Environmentally sustainable fabrication of high-performance M-type hexaferrite BaFe11.6Mn0.4O19 using manganese residue and rare earths for microwave absorption applications

Techno-economic analysis of a power-to-hydrogen system in heavy industries with and without national incentives

This study analyzes how national incentive programs can play a transformative role in facilitating green hydrogen adoption across emission-intensive industrial sectors. Despite the recognized potential of green hydrogen for industry decarbonization, its widespread uptake remains constrained by elevated costs, limited supporting infrastructure, and technological limitations. By evaluating system optimization strategies, including PV-Wind, PEM electrolyser, energy storage and hydrogen tank sizing, this research demonstrates that targeted incentives applied to the redevelopment of legacy industrial zones can substantially reduce the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) from 7.8 USD/kg in baseline scenarios to 4.5 USD/kg with incentives considered, while simultaneously achieving notable reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from approximately 3.2 kgCO₂eq/kgH₂ to near 1.4 kgCO₂eq/kgH₂. The novelty of this work is fourfold. It presents the first techno-economic optimization of Power-to-Hydrogen (PtH) systems that explicitly quantifies the interaction between national incentive schemes (0–70% CAPEX subsidies) and optimal sizing of PV, wind, electrolyzer, and hydrogen storage for heavy industrial applications. It demonstrates a linear relationship between total capital investment and LCOH (R² > 0.96), enabling rapid cost estimation without full simulations. It identifies a critical threshold for battery storage cost reduction (≥50%) before batteries become economically viable in PtH systems without incentives. It also provides a comparative analysis of incentive effects versus projected equipment cost reductions (2030–2050), showing that incentives alone can achieve 43–54% LCOH reductions. In addition, this formulated control strategy aims to accomplish three main objectives such as satisfying hourly hydrogen demand, maximizing renewable electricity utilization, and minimizing grid electricity withdrawal. The economic effect of these incentives closely rivals anticipated declines in equipment expenses projected for the coming decade. Furthermore, the observed linear relationship between capital investment and LCOH enables precise cost modelling and streamlines decision-making for site-specific implementations, minimizing the need for additional simulations.

A Pseudokinase Catalyzes Nitrile Formation in the Biosynthesis of a Potent Marine Toxin

ABSTRACT Several pseudokinases, previously regarded as dead enzymes due to the lack of catalytic residues, catalyze nucleotidylation. While they often utilize macromolecular substrates such as proteins and RNAs in primary metabolism, those acting on non‐macromolecules in specialized metabolisms are limited. Calyculin A, a cytotoxic natural product produced by an uncultured sponge symbiont, possesses a unique nitrile group at the end of its tetraene tail. Even though its biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) has been identified, the enzyme responsible for nitrile formation remains unknown. Herein, through a comparative analysis of the BGCs for calyculin derivatives in symbiotic bacteria from distinct sources, we identified a novel nitrile‐forming enzyme, CalN. While CalN lacks sequence homology with other known nitrile‐forming enzymes, it is structurally similar to pseudokinases. In vitro enzymatic reactions demonstrated that CalN specifically catalyzes nitrile formation through the adenylation of an amide substrate, calyculinamide A. In silico analyses and mutational experiments showed that CalN's structure features a unique insertion that plays critical roles in ATP recognition and the spatial coordination of catalytic residues. This study not only identifies a new family of nitrile‐forming enzymes but also expands the variety of chemical reactions mediated by pseudokinases in nature.

IBNN: an integrated BERT-neural network framework for sentiment and emotion based text analysis

Beyond coverage: Can vaccination reduce child mortality despite structural inequality? A global ecological analysis of routine childhood immunization (2010–2023)

Routine childhood immunization is still a critical topic to global public health, since it prevents an estimated 3.5 to 5 million deaths annually. However, its access remains uneven, especially in low-income countries, where structural inequalities limit the reach of immunization programs, and the Covid-19 pandemic disrupted routine services, worsening the existing disparities. This ecological study (2010–2023) examined associations between vaccine coverage and infant mortality using the WHO/UNICEF data for six childhood vaccines: BCG, DTP3, HepB3, Hib3, MCV2, and Pol3. Countries were stratified by income level using the World Bank World Development Indicators. Associations between vaccine coverage and infant mortality were evaluated using multivariable linear regression models adjusted for national income level. In addition, non-linear relationships and rank-based associations were explored using LOESS smoothing and Spearman correlation analyses. Results showed higher coverage and lower mortality in high-income countries; meanwhile, low-income countries faced both reduced coverage and higher mortality rates. A significant decline in coverage occurred in 2020, with only partial recovery by 2023. After adjusting for income, most vaccine coverage indicators lost statistical significance in relation to infant mortality. These findings highlight that income-related structural inequities determine immunization coverage and preventable child mortality, emphasizing the need for policies that simultaneously expand vaccine access, reduce structural barriers, and strengthen health systems.

Comparative analysis and correlation of cancer hotspot proteins and cell markers in tumor-normal adjacent breast and kidney samples using RPPA and LC-MS

Abstract Cancer proteomics is crucial for understanding tumor biology, yet consistent quantification of clinically relevant proteins across analytical platforms remains challenging. Here, we compared Reverse Phase Protein Array (RPPA) and Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) using identical lysate aliquots prepared from matched tumor and adjacent normal tissues from breast and kidney cancer patients. We focused on proteins encoded by genes represented in the Ion AmpliSeq Cancer Hotspot Panel v2 and included representative cellular markers. RPPA was applied to the larger sample set, whereas data-dependent, data-independent, and targeted parallel reaction monitoring LC-MS modes were performed on a smaller subset of lysates. RPPA identified tumor-normal differences for several proteins and cell markers, while LC-MS quantified a smaller overlapping subset in the matched samples analyzed by both platforms. Cross-platform comparison showed that agreement was partial and strongly protein dependent: some targets displayed concordant tumor/normal fold changes, whereas others exhibited weak or even opposite-direction changes. Targeted PRM modestly improved agreement for selected discordant proteins, but substantial discrepancies remained. These data indicate that RPPA and LC-MS are not interchangeable for quantifying all targets in this panel, calling for a rather confirmatory approach: concordant findings increase confidence in selected candidate biomarkers, whereas discordant findings identify targets that require cautious interpretation.

Effects of music-based occupational therapy activities on attention executive functions in children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder

Background Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a multifactorial neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by cognitive, motor, sensory, emotional, and behavioral difficulties. This disorder may lead to impairments in various executive functions, such as sustained attention, planning and organizing, and impulse control. Occupational therapy interventions offer strategies aimed at enhancing attention, executive functions, and motor skills in individuals with ADHD, while also providing guidance and support to caregivers throughout the process. Caregivers of children with ADHD play a vital supportive role and are required to manage caregiving demands through appropriate and healthy care strategies. Objective The aim of this study was investigate the effect of music-based occupational therapy activities on attention and executive functions in children diagnosed with ADHD, compared with structured occupational therapy interventions, as well as to examine changes in caregiver burden. Materials and methods A total of 39 children aged between 5 and 12 years (N = 39) participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned into two groups: music-based occupational therapy (n = 19) and structured occupational therapy (n = 20). The music-based occupational therapy group received sessions involving harmonica and drum-based occupational therapy activities, while the structured occupational therapy group received conventional structured occupational therapy interventions. Both interventions were administered once a week for six weeks, with each session lasting 45 minutes. Children’s attention levels were assessed using the DSM-V Level-2 Inattention Scale, executive function skills were evaluated with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function–Child Version (BRIEF), and caregiver burden was measured using the Zarit Burden Interview, both at baseline and after the intervention period. Results Pre- and post-intervention assessments revealed improvements in both groups in terms of attention levels (F (1, 37) = 9.675, η ² = .207, p = .004), executive functions (F (1, 37) = 2.506, η ² = .063, p = .122), and caregiver burden (F (1, 37) = 0.002, η ² = .000, p = .967). When comparing time-group interactions, it was observed that music-based occupational therapy activities had a more beneficial effect, particularly on attention levels, in children with ADHD compared to structured occupational therapy. Conclusion Overall, music-based occupational therapy activities demonstrated positive effects on attention levels, executive functions, and caregiver burden in children with ADHD. Future studies are encouraged to incorporate a broader range of musical instruments into occupational therapy intervention plans, aligned with specific therapeutic goals. It is considered important for therapists to develop strategies that tailor the rhythm, melody, and harmony of musical instruments according to the physical, emotional, and cognitive needs of individuals.

Fluorescein spectrofluorometric quenching detection of chloride and iodide using eight-Blue-LEDs excitation and dual solar cells

Abstract This study presents a novel, custom‑built fluorescence detector for the precise determination of chloride and iodide ions based on their quenching effect on fluorescein. The detection system incorporates eight blue LEDs irradiation sources arranged at 0–90° angles relative to twin solar cell detectors connected. Two fluorescence quenching strategies were developed. The injected‑mixture mode (IMFQ) exhibited linear ranges of 0.00–1.00 mM for Cl⁻ and 0.00–1.25 mM for I⁻, with detection limits of 20 µM and 10 µmol L⁻¹, respectively. The continuous‑flow mode (CFFQ) demonstrated superior sensitivity with a dispersion factor of 1.33, wider linear ranges (0.1–6.0 mM for Cl⁻ and 0.05–6.0 mM for I⁻), and lower detection limits (10 µM and 5 µM, respectively). Both strategies rely on Stern‑Volmer kinetics and were successfully applied to real samples (table salts and detergents) with excellent recoveries (95.7–108.1%).

Deforestation and human proximity influence Trypanosoma cruzi infection in palm-dwelling triatomines

In the southwestern Brazilian Amazon, palm-dwelling triatomines maintain sylvatic transmission cycles of Trypanosoma cruzi , the causative agent of Chagas disease, and Trypanosoma rangeli , a related non-pathogenic parasite. Deforestation can reduce biodiversity and increase pathogen prevalence in triatomine populations; however, the effects of landscape structure on triatomine infection patterns remain poorly understood. Here, we address this knowledge gap by examining how forest cover and proximity to human dwellings influence triatomine infection patterns across gradients of deforestation. Field surveys were conducted in 2022 and 2024 in 20 landscape units in Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre state, Brazil, where triatomines were collected from palm trees located at varying distances from inhabited households. Distances and land-use composition were quantified from high-resolution drone and satellite imagery, while parasite infections were identified using molecular assays. Bayesian binomial mixed-effects models revealed contrasting responses between parasites. T . cruzi infection probability was higher in more deforested landscapes and was further modulated by palm-household distance, with the strongest effects observed for palms closer to dwellings. In contrast, T . rangeli infection showed no supported association with forest cover or distance to households. Blood meal analysis revealed frequent feeding on sylvatic hosts, particularly marsupials, and detected human blood in a nymph collected only 33 m from a household; T . cruzi infections detected in the study were exclusively assigned to TcI discrete typing unit, a lineage commonly associated with sylvatic transmission. These findings demonstrate that deforestation reshapes host-vector-parasite interactions in palm-based systems, increasing spillover risk at the sylvatic-human interface without requiring domiciliated triatomines.

Longitudinal associations between adherence to 24-h movement guidelines and physical fitness and body composition in pediatric overweight and obesity

ROS-mediated apoptosis in colon cancer cells induced by sulfated polysaccharides from Gracilaria corticata

Background Sulfated polysaccharides (SPs) from red algae have attracted considerable interest due to their antioxidant and anticancer properties. Gracilaria corticata is a rich source of sulfated polysaccharides with notable antioxidant and anticancer potential. Objectives This study aimed to optimize the extraction process of SPs from G. corticata, determine their chemical and structural features, and evaluate their antioxidant and anticancer activities. Materials and methods The SPs were extracted from G. corticata using ultrasound-assisted extraction. The chemical composition, molecular weight (230 kDa), and structure of the extracted SPs were characterized using standard biochemical assays and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Antioxidant capacity was evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging assays. Cytotoxicity was assessed against HT-29 colon cancer cells and normal CCD-841 cells via 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Apoptosis induction was further examined through Annexin V-FITC/PI staining and gene expression analysis of apoptosis-related markers. Results Ultrasound-assisted extraction was optimized at 12 min, 800 W power, and a solvent-to-biomass ratio of 30 mL/g, yielding 34.8% SPs. The SPs contained 84.4% carbohydrates, 8.7% sulfate, and 2.55% protein, with galactose identified as the predominant sugar. Molecular weight was determined to be 230 kDa. Antioxidant assays demonstrated dose-dependent activity, reaching 81.92% (DPPH) and 86.34% (ABTS) radical scavenging. SPs inhibited HT-29 cell viability with an IC₅₀ of 171 μg/mL and a selectivity index (SI) of 3.48. Apoptosis was induced via increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and altered expression of key genes, including upregulation of Bax , P53 , and Caspase 3 , and downregulation of BCL2 . Conclusions SPs extracted from G. corticata, show strong antioxidant and selective anticancer activity through ROS-mediated apoptosis. These findings support their potential use as natural therapeutic agents in pharmaceutical development.

Development and Applications of Antifreeze Materials: From Nature to Design

ABSTRACT Ice formation poses significant challenges across multiple domains, including biomedicine, food industry, infrastructure, and intelligent sensors, where freezing environments can cause serious functional and safety issues. The development of effective antifreeze materials has become an urgent priority. Nature offers valuable insights in this regard, having evolved diverse psychrotolerant organisms from microorganisms to plants and fish. Within these organisms, key small molecules and macromolecules responsible for cold tolerance have been progressively identified. Inspired by them, recent years have witnessed the design and synthesis of a series of high‐performance antifreeze materials through biomanufacturing or chemical synthesis. This review highlights the significant progress in antifreeze materials, tracing their evolution from natural models to rational design systems: (1) natural antifreeze materials and their mechanistic insights, with emphasis on molecular lessons for ice inhibition; (2) biomanufacturing and rational design of antifreeze proteins based on emerging structure‐activity relationships; (3) nature‐inspired synthetic antifreeze materials, such as polymers, hydrogels, and elastomers; and (4) key applications in cryopreservation, food preservation, anti‐icing coatings, and freezing‐tolerant flexible sensors. While promising advances have been made, this review also addresses persistent challenges in translating these laboratory innovations into scalable applications.

The global burden and risk factors of common mental disorders in pregnant women: a systematic review and meta-analysis

DFT-driven insights into (Sr/Ba)2GaBiO6 double perovskites for next-generation optoelectronic and thermoelectric technologies

Quantifying groundwater storage dynamics during the 2024 flood season using GRACE-FO and multi-source hydrological data in Hunan Province, China

Abstract Groundwater is a vital component of the hydrological cycle, and understanding its dynamics is crucial for water resource management under climate change. This study employs GRACE-FO satellite data to assess groundwater storage (GWS) dynamics in Hunan Province during the 2024 flood season (April-September). Given the abundant surface water resources in this region, we explicitly incorporate the water storage of Dongting Lake and 28 large reservoirs when calculating surface water storage anomaly (SWSA), which is crucial for estimating the GWS anomaly (GWSA). Accordingly, GWSA is obtained by subtracting the soil moisture storage anomaly (SMSA) and SWSA from the GRACE-FO-derived terrestrial water storage anomaly (TWSA). Furthermore, correlation coefficients and contribution of each water storage component to TWSA are calculated to reveal inter-component interactions and response mechanisms to precipitation. Results show that original TWSA, SWSA, and GWSA increase markedly from March to July 2024. After detrending and deseasonalizing, SWSA and GWSA exhibit a complementary relationship (correlation coefficient: −0.20), with changes of −3.08 km 3 and −1.12 km 3 over the flood season, largely attributed to anthropogenic flood control operations. In contrast, SMSA and GWSA are weakly positively correlated (0.29), reflecting limited direct recharge efficiency. TWSA is strongly correlated with both SMSA (0.78) and GWSA (0.71), reflecting synergistic variation among water storage components. Consistently, GWSA contributes the most (44.52%) to TWSA fluctuations, followed by SMSA (31.80%) and SWSA (23.68%), highlighting the critical role of groundwater in the regional water cycle. These findings provide a valuable scientific basis for sustainable water resource management and regulation in Hunan Province.