Reprogrammed regulatory T cells as cytotoxic effectors drive anti-tumor immunity under bispecific T cell engager therapy

Abstract

Abstract Background: Bispecific T cell engagers (BTCEs) have transformed the treatment of multiple myeloma (MM) and B cell malignancies by redirecting cytotoxic T cells toward malignant targets. While clinical responses can be deep and durable, the immunological determinants of BTCE efficacy, and mechanisms of eventual immune escape, remain poorly understood. Regulatory T cells (Tregs), enriched early in MM, are classically immunosuppressive, but whether they are modulated by BTCEs and contribute to therapeutic outcomes has not been systematically investigated. Methods We performed longitudinal single-cell RNA/TCR/ATAC-sequencing and immune profiling of 17 newly diagnosed multiple myeloma (NDMM) patients across induction therapy. 11 patients were treated with teclistamab plus daratumumab, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (Tec-DRD, n = 11) in the ongoing MajesTEC-5 (HD10/DSMMXX) trial (NCT05695508). As controls, patients receiving standard-of-care DRD (n = 6) were included. Functional validation used newly established NDMM plasma cell-T cell co-cultures, real-time killing assays, cytokine ELISAs, intracellular flow cytometry and arrayed quantitative PCRs of key T cell signaling pathways. Mechanistic studies employed CRISPR-mediated perturbations and combination treatments with IMiDs. Generalizability was tested using three BTCEs in vitro: teclistamab (BCMA×CD3), blinatumomab (CD19×CD3), and glofitamab (CD20×CD3) to redirect primary human Tregs towards MM (MM.1S), lymphoma (Raji), and B-ALL (NALM-6) cell lines. Non-targeting BTCEs as well as anti-CD3 antibodies were used as controls. Preclinical in vivo studies used an immunocompetent, transplantable Bcma+ Vk*MYC tumor model treated with murinized BTCE surrogates and IMiDs. Results BTCE therapy induced robust transcriptional and epigenetic reprogramming of bone marrow Tregs into a FOXP3lowIL2RAlow cytotoxic phenotype (“exTregs”) expressing NKG7, GZMA/B, TBX21, and CCL5. In contrast, this Treg phenotype conversion was absent in DRD-treated controls. Although comprising only ~2% of marrow-infiltrating T cells, exTregs mediated direct plasma cell lysis in vitro, strictly dependent on BTCE-mediated antigen-specific synapse formation and not recapitulated by CD3 stimulation alone. IMiDs synergized with BTCEs by destabilizing the suppressive Treg phenotype via Helios (IKZF2) downregulation, augmenting granzyme and cytokine production. Single-cell ATAC-seq of Tregs isolated from Tec-DRD-exposed trial participants revealed increased chromatin accessibility at AP-1 motifs and we confirmed BATF/JUNB-driven AP-1 signaling as a central transcriptional axis orchestrating Treg effector conversion in vitro. This cytotoxic reprogramming was conserved across BTCEs targeting BCMA, CD19, and CD20, and validated in immunocompetent mouse models, indicating a generalizable, BTCE-driven mechanism of Treg repurposing, rather than target- or engager-specific biology. Conclusion Our findings uncover a novel mechanism by which BTCEs actively convert suppressive Tregs into cytotoxic, pro-inflammatory effectors that contribute to tumor clearance. We identified the BATF/JUNB transcriptional axis and IMiD-mediated Helios destabilization as targetable regulators of this process. These results redefine Treg function under BTCE pressure, support rational combination regimens with IMiDs, and suggest exTreg signatures as biomarkers and therapeutic targets to enhance T cell-redirecting immunotherapies across hematological malignancies.