Ketamine and metabolites in snake venom: effects of venom extraction and potential impact on animal models

Abstract

Abstract In zootoxinology, drugs such as anesthetics and secretion enhancers are used to increase venom yields, but it is unclear whether this affects the venom composition. After injection of ketamine and pilocarpine into two non-front-fanged snakes, mass spectrometry confirmed the presence of both drugs and their metabolites in the venoms. The quantified high concentrations raise concerns about potential interference in bioassays and pharmacological studies, highlighting the need to consider extraction additives in venom research to ensure unbiased results.