Genetic elements promote retention of extrachromosomal DNA in cancer cells

Abstract

Abstract Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) is a prevalent and devastating form of oncogene amplification in cancer 1,2 . Circular megabase-sized ecDNAs lack centromeres, stochastically segregate during cell division 3–6 and persist over many generations. It has been more than 40 years since ecDNAs were first observed to hitchhike on mitotic chromosomes into daughter cell nuclei, but the mechanism underlying this process remains unclear 3,7 . Here we identify a family of human genomic elements, termed retention elements, that tether episomes to mitotic chromosomes to increase ecDNA transmission to daughter cells. Using Retain-seq, a genome-scale assay that we developed, we reveal thousands of human retention elements that confer generational persistence to heterologous episomes. Retention elements comprise a select set of CpG-rich gene promoters and act additively. Live-cell imaging and chromosome conformation capture show that retention elements physically interact with mitotic chromosomes at regions that are mitotically bookmarked by transcription factors and chromatin proteins. This activity intermolecularly recapitulates promoter–enhancer interactions. Multiple retention elements are co-amplified with oncogenes on individual ecDNAs in human cancers and shape their sizes and structures. CpG-rich retention elements are focally hypomethylated. Targeted cytosine methylation abrogates retention activity and leads to ecDNA loss, which suggests that methylation-sensitive interactions modulate episomal DNA retention. These results highlight the DNA elements and regulatory logic of mitotic ecDNA retention. Amplifications of retention elements promote the maintenance of oncogenic ecDNA across generations of cancer cells, and reveal the principles of episome immortality intrinsic to the human genome.